Radiotherapy & Chemotherapy
1. Radiation targets only the cancer cells. However, chemotherapy is administered through
the blood and therefore, affects both cancerous and non-cancerous cells
2. Though they can be used for any sort of cancer, radiation mainly targets solid tumours like
those of the cervix, spine and skin.
3. Chemotherapy treats cancers through medicines, while radiation deals with cancer cells
through rays
4. Radiation results in additional side effects like internal inflammation, especially in the
stomach and the intestine.
Springtides & Neap tides
Springtide:
i) Spring Tides When the moon is full or new, the gravitational pull of the moon and sun are
combined.
ii) At these times, the high tides are very high and the low tides are very low. This is known
as a spring high tide.
iii) Spring tides are especially strong tides (they do not have anything to do with the season
spring).
iv) They occur when the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon are in a line. The gravitational forces
of the Moon and the Sun both contribute to the tides.
v) Spring tides occur during the full moon and the new moon.
Neap tides:
i) Neap Tides During the moon's quarter phases the sun and moon work at right angles,
causing the bulges to cancel each other.
ii) The result is a smaller difference between high and low tides and is known as a neap tide.
iii) Neap tides are especially weak tides.
iv) They occur when the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to
one another (with respect to the Earth).
v) Neap tides occur during quarter moon.
Vertebrates & Invertebrates
• Vertebrates have a backbone with a spinal cord, whereas invertebrates do not.
• The diversity is exceptionally high among the invertebrates compared to vertebrates.
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• Vertebrates are always bilaterally symmetrical, while invertebrates could show either
bilateral or radial symmetry.
• Vertebrates are usually large-bodied and move fast compared to invertebrates.
• Vertebrates have a closed blood system, a well-developed brain, either gills or lungs for
respiration, and a complex and sophisticated nervous system, whereas those are primitive in
invertebrates. Therefore, it concerns that vertebrates have many specializations to extract the
best out of the environment compared to invertebrates.
Fluorescent & Neon Light
A neon light is the sort of light you see used in advertising signs. These signs are made of
long, narrow glass tubes, and these tubes are often bent into all sorts of shapes. The tube of a
neon light can spell out a word, for example. These tubes emit light in different colours.
A fluorescent light, on the other hand, is most often a long, straight tube that produces white
light. You see fluorescent lights in offices, stores and some home fixtures.
The idea behind a neon light is simple. Inside the glass tube there is a gas like neon, argon or
krypton at low pressure. At both ends of the tube there are metal electrodes. When you apply
a high voltage to the electrodes, the neon gas ionizes, and electrons flow through the gas.
These electrons excite the neon atoms and cause them to emit light that we can see. Neon
emits red light when energized in this way. Other gases emit other colours.
A fluorescent light works on a similar idea but it has an extra step. Inside a fluorescent light
is low-pressure mercury vapour. When ionized, mercury vapour emits ultraviolet light.
Human eyes are not sensitive to ultraviolet light (although human skin is -- see How
Sunburns and Sun Tans Work!). Therefore, the inside of a fluorescent light is coated with a
phosphor. A phosphor is a substance that can accept energy in one form (for example, energy
from a high-speed electron as in a TV tube -- see How Television Works) and emit the
energy in the form of visible light. In a fluorescent lamp, the phosphor accepts the energy of
ultraviolet photons and emits visible photons.
The light we see from a fluorescent tube is the light given off by the phosphor that coats the
inside of the tube (the phosphor fluoresces when energized, hence the name). The light of a
neon tube is the colored light that the neon atoms give off directly.
Telemeter:
A telemeter is a device used to remotely measure a quantity. Telemeters are generally the
physical devices used in telemetry. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can
be wireless or hard-wired, analogue or digital. Other technologies are possible, however, such
as mechanical, hydraulic and optical.
Multimeter:
A multimeter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and
resistance. Multimeters may use analogue or digital circuits—analogue multimeters (AMM)
and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually
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based on a micro-ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different
measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a
bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work
or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be
used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices
such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and
wiring systems.
Periscope and Microscope
Periscope:
A periscope is an instrument for observation from a concealed position. In its simplest form it
consists of a tube with mirrors at each end set parallel to each other at a 45-degree angle. This
form of periscope, with the addition of two simple lenses, served for observation purposes in
the trenches during World War I. Military personnel also use periscopes in some gun turrets
and in armoured vehicles.
More complex periscopes, using prisms instead of mirrors, and providing magnification,
operate on submarines. The overall design of the classical submarine periscope is very
simple: two telescopes pointed into each other. If the two telescopes have different individual
magnification, the difference between them causes an overall magnification or reduction.
Microscope:
A microscope (from the Greek: μικρός, mikrós, "small" and σκοπεῖν, skopeîn, "to look" or
"see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of
investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic
means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
There are many types of microscopes, the most common and first to be invented is the optical
microscope which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the
electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron
microscope) and the various types of scanning probe microscope.
Nucleon and Photon
Nucleon:
A nucleon is a collective name for two particles: the neutron and the proton. These are the
two constituents of the atomic nucleus. Until the 1960s, the nucleons were thought to be
elementary particles. Now they are known to be composite particles, each made of three
quarks bound together by the so-called strong interaction.
The interaction between two or more nucleons is called inter-nucleon interactions or nuclear
force, which is also ultimately caused by the strong interaction. (Before the discovery of
quarks, the term "strong interaction" referred to just inter-nucleon interactions.)
Photon:
A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic interaction and the
basic unit of light and all other forms of electromagnetic. It is also the force carrier for the
electromagnetic force. The effects of this force are easily observable at both the microscopic
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and macroscopic level, because the photon has no rest mass; this allows for interactions at
long distances. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum
mechanics and will exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of both waves and
particles. For example, a single photon may be refracted by a lens or exhibit wave
interference with itself, but also act as a particle giving a definite result when quantitative
momentum (quantized angular momentum) is measured.
Cusec and Comet
Cusec;
Cusec is a measure of flow rate and is informal shorthand for cubic feet per second (28.317
litres per second).
Comet:
A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when close enough to the Sun, displays a
visible coma (a thin, fuzzy, temporary atmosphere) and sometimes also a tail. These
phenomena are both due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus
of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometres across and
are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. Comets have been
observed since ancient times and have traditionally been considered bad omens.
Telescope and Microscope are two scientific instruments that serve their purposes differently.
One of the main differences between a telescope and a microscope is that a telescope is used
to view things that are far whereas a microscope is used to view things that are very near.
It is indeed true both the instruments are used to watch the minute details of the objects or
things more clearly. Another important difference between telescope and microscope is that
the focal length or the distance from the focal point to the lens is different in these two
scientific instruments.
As a result of this the focal point in the case of a telescope may be at a far off place. On the
other hand the focal point in the case of a microscope is just a fraction of an inch off.
The difference in the diameter of the lens used in the two instruments also matter a lot when
it comes to the difference between them. The lens diameter or the aperture is much larger in a
telescope. This is to ensure that the aperture allows tiny amount of natural light at the focal
point.
On the other hand only artificial illumination is used in a microscope. The artificial
illumination is made to fall at the focal point in a microscope. It is interesting to note that a
telescope and a microscope differ from each other in terms of the curvature of the lens.
A microscope is used to look into smaller details like the structure of the cells and the
unicellular organism. On the other hand larger objects that are very far off are the targets of a
telescope. In short it can be said that a telescope is used to look into space. Magnification is
the keyword in both the scientific instruments.
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Antibiotics and Vaccines
1) Vaccine kills virus while antibiotics kill bacteria.
2) Vaccine is taken once and has permanent effect whereas antibiotics work during the time
of disease.
3) Antibiotics are available in different forms like tablets, capsules, drops or ointments.
Vaccines can be given orally or through injection.
4) Vaccines are preventive method that is taken before getting infected. Antibiotics are taken
after getting infected.
OR
- Vaccines act against most microorganism, whereas antibiotics act against bacteria.
- Vaccines are provided before the manifestation of the infection, but antibiotics are given
mostly after.
- Vaccines usually have a specific single type of microbe, whereas antibiotics would act
against a multitude of species.
- Vaccines enhance the natural immunity, and antibiotics cause destruction of the
biochemistry of the organism.
- Vaccines are highly effective against organism, but there may be resistance to antibiotics
needing the development of newer antibiotics.
- Both have equally lethal complications, but vaccines carry a lesser range of complications
related to antibiotics.
Myopia:
Myopia (short sightedness) is an eye disease in which the patient cannot see the distant
objects clearly. This disease can be corrected by using convex lenses in glasses.
Hyperopia:
Hyperopia (long sightedness) is defect of vision in which a person cannot see the clearly
objects lying close to him. The disease can be corrected by using convex lenses in glasses.
Periscope & Perimeter
Periscope:
Instrument used by submarines to see above the surface of the sea.
Perimeter:
A perimeter is a path that surrounds an area. The word comes from the Greek peri (around)
and meter (measure). The term may be used either for the path or its length - it can be thought
of as the length of the outline of a shape. The perimeter of a circular area is called
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circumference.
X-rays & Gamma Rays
1. Gamma rays cause more harm to human body than the X- rays.
2. Gamma rays have shorter wavelengths than the X-rays.
3. X rays are emitted by the electrons outside the nucleus, and gamma rays are emitted by the
excited nucleus itself.
4. X rays are used in hospitals for taking X-rays but gamma rays are not.
Hydrometer & Hygrometer
Hydrometer
Hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. It should be
noted that specific gravity is the ration of the density of the liquids to density of water.
Hygrometer:
A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure relative humidity. A simple form of
hygrometer consists of two thermometers, one of which has a dry bulb and the other, a wet
bulb.
Perimeter & Telemeter
Perimeter:
A perimeter is a path that surrounds an area. The word comes from the Greek peri (around)
and meter (measure). The term may be used either for the path or its length - it can be thought
of as the length of the outline of a shape. The perimeter of a circular area is called
circumference.
Telemeter:
A telemeter is a device used to remotely measure a quantity. Telemeters are generally the
physical devices used in telemetry. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can
be wireless or hard-wired, analogue or digital. Other technologies are possible, however, such
as mechanical, hydraulic and optical.
Isotope & Isomer
Isotope:
Isotopes are different types of atoms of same element whose atoms of same element whose
atomic number is same but atomic mass is different. Isotopes have similar chemical
properties but different physical properties.
Isomers:
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula.
Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties unless they have same functional groups.
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OR
Isotopes and Isomers
An isotope refers strictly to pure elements. Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei are called isotopes. For instance, hydrogen-1 (1H) and
hydrogen-2 (2H or deuterium) are isotopes of each other.
An isomer refers strictly to molecules. Two molecules that have the same composition (i.e.,
the same molecular formula) but are different in the connectivity, shape or orientation, are
called isomers. For instance, n-propanol (1-propanol) and isopropanol (2-propanol or rubbing
alcohol) are isomers of each other. Ethanol is not an isomer of propanol, however, because
they have different formulas.
Flying Mammal & Bird
Flying Mammals:
i. Mammals are the class of animals which give birth to live offspring and feed their young
ones on milk from their breast.
ii.Flying mamma is the type of animal which belongs to mammalian group with additional
quality of flying.
iii.Bats are representative animals of this group.
iii.Bats have many unusual characteristics.
v.They cannot walk very well because of skin that reaches over its front and back legs.
vi. It flies at night and stays in caves and other dark places during the day.
vii.Hanging upside down by the claws of its back legs, it looks like flying mice.
Birds:
i. Birds are winged, bipedal, endothermic warm-blooded, egg laying vertebrate animals.
ii.There are around 10,000 living species across the world.
iii.All birds have fore-limbs modified as wings and most can fly with few exceptions like
ratites, penguins and number of various island species.
Difference between Bats and Birds
The variation between bats and birds is their structure and class. Bats came from the
Chiroptera and Aves family. Bats are webbed structured flying animals while birds are
feathered winged animals. Bats are mammals, so they don‘t lay eggs, compared to birds that
are known as egg-laying animals. When flying, bats don‘t flap their forelimbs completely
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compared to birds. Generally, bats have teeth which help them when eating while birds have
beaks in picking up food and eating them. Bats are nocturnal animals; they hunt and go
around their business at night and sleep during the day while birds work and hunt for food
during daytime and sleep at night.
Typhoons & Tornado
• Hurricane (also called typhoons) is a result of tropical disturbance on a water body, while a
tornado is always formed on land.
• A tropical storm is labelled a hurricane if it takes place between Atlantic and Pacific Ocean ,
but the same storm is called a cyclone if it takes place in Indian Ocean .
• Though both have eyes or centre, the centre of a tornado can be huge, extending up to 20
miles in diameter, whereas the eye of a tornado is very small being only a few feet in
diameter
• Hurricanes occur in the months of June to November, whereas Tornados occur in the
months of April to June
• Tornados last for a few minutes or hours, whereas hurricanes can have a very long duration
lasting for 2-3 weeks.
• Thunderstorms are effects of hurricanes, whereas they are the cause of a tornado
• Hurricanes can cause floods and tsunamis, whereas tornados spread epidemics and also
contaminate water sources.
OR
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air extending from the base of a thunderstorm to
the ground. In weather terms tornadoes are small, 50 yards wide on average and rarely
exceeding a mile wide, though on rare occasions tornadoes up to 2.5 miles wide have
occurred. Tornadoes are also short lived, lasting 10 minutes on average, though a few have
lasted for over 3 hours. Tornadoes form from interactions of air currents in a thunderstorm.
Hurricanes and typhoons are essentially the same thing, only a hurricane is in the Atlantic
ocean or north-eastern Pacific ocean while a typhoon is in the north westernPacific ocean .
Both are tropical cyclones with winds of at least 74 mph. In addition to having strong winds
these storms bring heavy rain and flooding. The average hurricane/ typhoon is about 300
miles wide and forms over the course of several days. Unlike tornadoes, which are generally
as land-based event These systems develop from disorganized clusters of thunderstorms that
feed of the moisture from warm ocean water, organize, and intensify.
Microscope & Telescope
Telescope and Microscope are two scientific instruments that serve their purposes differently.
One of the main differences between a telescope and a microscope is that a telescope is used
to view things that are far whereas a microscope is used to view things that are very near.
67
It is indeed true both the instruments are used to watch the minute details of the objects or
things more clearly. Another important difference between telescope and microscope is that
the focal length or the distance from the focal point to the lens is different in these two
scientific instruments.
As a result of this the focal point in the case of a telescope may be at a far off place. On the
other hand the focal point in the case of a microscope is just a fraction of an inch off.
The difference in the diameter of the lens used in the two instruments also matter a lot when
it comes to the difference between them. The lens diameter or the aperture is much larger in a
telescope. This is to ensure that the aperture allows tiny amount of natural light at the focal
point.
On the other hand only artificial illumination is used in a microscope. The artificial
illumination is made to fall at the focal point in a microscope. It is interesting to note that a
telescope and a microscope differ from each other in terms of the curvature of the lens.
A microscope is used to look into smaller details like the structure of the cells and the
unicellular organism. On the other hand larger objects that are very far off are the targets of a
telescope. In short it can be said that a telescope is used to look into space. Magnification is
the keyword in both the scientific instruments.
Ultrasonics & Infrasonic:
Ultrasonics:
The study of sound aves with high frequencies beyond the upper limit of human hearing or 20
thousand Hz. This technique is employed to locate a tumour, to scan a pregnant woman‘s
abdomen in order to produce a picture of foetus or to treat certain neurotically disorders.
Infrasonic:
These are the sound waves which have the frequencies lowest than the lowest limits of
human hearing or 20 Hz.
OR
The sounds having frequency more than 20,000 hertz (Hz) are called ultrasonic or ultrasound
and the sounds having frequency less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic or infrasound. Both of
these sounds cannot be heard by human beings. The audible range for of hearing by human
beings is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
Antibodies:
Protein synthesized in the blood in response to the entry of foreign substances or organisms into the
body. When the body get infected through virus or bacteria, specific antibody is produced which
fights the disease.
Antibiotics:
These are substances which can stop the growth or destroy the bacteria or other microorganisms. The
antibiotics are used to eliminate fatal diseases such as typhoid, plague and cholera etc.
OR
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Antibodies
l They are what your body produces in response to the presence of antigens (bacterial or viral surface
structures)
l They merely assist your white blood cells in identifying
l They also destroy and invade the unidentified microorganisms.
Antibiotics
l They are chemicals that work to destroy invading bacteria (usually by disrupting the outer cell wall
and making it "leak" or by messing up the bacteria's metabolic processes. They are not produced by
the body)
l Antibiotics can be antibacterial or antiviral. Antibacterial will only destroy bacteria and antiviral
will only destroy viruses. There are not many antibiotics for viruses. Also a virus is not a eukaryote.
Antigen & Vaccine
Antigen:
A substance or organism that induces the production of an antibody. The antigen reacts with
antibody. The antigen tissue proteins can cause problems in the transplant of organs by rejecting the
introduction of new organ in the body.
An antigen is a foreign molecule that, when introduced into the body, triggers the production of an
antibody by the immune system. The immune system will then kill or neutralize the antigen that is
recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader. These invaders can be molecules such as
pollen or cells such as bacteria. The term originally came from antibody generator[1][2] and was a
molecule that binds specifically to an antibody, but the term now also refers to any molecule or
molecular fragment that can be bound by a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and presented
to a T-cell receptor. "Self" antigens are usually tolerated by the immune system; whereas "Non-self"
antigens are identified as invaders and attacked by the immune system. self-antigens.
Vaccine:
The agent which is used to give immunity against various diseases. A vaccine consists of modified
disease organisms such as live weakened viruses or dead that can induce the production of antibodies
within the blood.
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine
typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from
weakened or killed forms of the microbe or its toxins. The agent stimulates the body's immune
system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and "remember" it, so that the immune system
can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.
Vaccines can be prophylactic (example: to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by
any natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (e.g. vaccines against cancer are also being
investigated; see cancer vaccine).
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